Overall, these are very good. By and large, good use of evidence, but in the future be sure to use the words of the ancient Greeks quoted in the book rather than Thornton's own words.
Chapter 5 begins with Thornton's argument that the idea of consensual government was exclusive to the Greeks in this time period. They believed that the government should belong to the "citizenry rather than any individual or elite group" (109). This idea emerged from the growth of the middle class after the Dark Ages. Aristotle said "the best political community is formed by citizens of the middle class... those states are likely to be well-administered in which the middle class is large and stronger, if possible, than both the other classes" (114). Great use of evidence.
The emergence of a tyrant occurs when too much power is vested in a single party, since we know that "absolute power corrupts absolutely". Tyrants use "violence to acquire and protect their rule and to gratify their appetites" (117). Any human completely subject to their own appetites lacks reason and therefore, by definition, also lacks humanity. Because the Greeks during this time period were beginning to recognize the value of sustained self-conscious reflection, tyranny had been almost completely eradicated by the 5th century.
Mob rule, by contrast, is caused by the act of placing too much power in the hands of the masses, yet this leads to the same result as that of tyranny. The masses relinquish their use of reason in the same manner as a tyrant and are subject to their own appetites, which in turn undermines the values of the state. Socrates solidifies this argument when he says that "the many were unsupported by reasoned argument and by the knowledge available only to a few", which would agree with the opinion of Xenophone that among the common people "there is a maximum of ignorance, disorder, and wickedness" (133). Excellent work. Great point about the Dark Ages.
In chapter 5, Thornton states that "all humans, including nobles and kings, are subject to powerful passions that threaten to overwhlem their sense of right and justice." The elites of society have the means to pursue these passions, through their wealth and social networking. The poor and impoverished do not have the means by which to seize power, and therefore cannot become tyrannical. The wealthy can abuse their status and coerce the lower classes. The lower classes inevitably covet this power and wealth, and may then therefore allow the tyrant to take power through the hope that they may also become prosperous, as individuals and as a society.
Thornton presents the ideas of Solon, stating that a healthy middle class creates a stable environment for society. Solon says, "povery breeds content and disorder as grievous as that spawned by the ambition of the rich; hence the middle way is best." Great use of evidence. The Greeks realized that absolute power corrupts absolutely, and thus gave power to many citizens, instead of to one or few people. Through the Assembly, and various committees, power was spread out as in a system of "checks and balances." Also through audits, voting, and at times, ostracism, power was comstantly being checked and monitored. As the poet Phocylides writes, "the middle condition" is the most desired. Excellent evidence and explanation.
Just as Aristotle said, "...the best political community is formed by the citizens of the middle class." However, as we have seen throughout history, tyrants or the mob can sometimes gain control. This can happen in different ways. Tyranny can come about when too much power is placed in the hands of one person. This has been justified through lineage, the divine right of kings, or the relinquishing of citizen rights. This reasoning can also be applied to "the mob" gaining power. The addage "Absolute power corrupts absolutely" applies here.
This misuse of power, however can be tempered through certain institutions and laws. Some of these include, in Athenian politics the possibility of exile and/or audits of politicians when they exehibited hubris. There was also the use of "the lot" in which every name placed in the drawing was theoretically equally capable of holding office. This, in it's ideal role, prevented tyranny because it took away a justification for being in power, everyone was equal. No one could seize the power. This also worked because it prevented the same person from holding the power over and over. This is similar to the theory of term limits, which also counteracted tyranny because it kept the politicians accountable to the people. This is great. Great use of evidence, no major jumps in logic.
Aristotle said, "it is manifest that the best political community is formed by citizens of the middle class." Thornton makes the argument that the Greeks believe that in order to avoid tyranny and a goverment controlled by passion, a strong middle class is needed. It is the Greek principle of "hubris" and the poor's tendancy to want what the rich have that makes the middle class ideal for a stable state. Good.
Tyrants gain control by circumventing the institutions that are created in order to limit their power. This includes limit on term length, checks and balances, equality for all, and the belief that everyone is competent to fullfil the duties of a leader. This is good, but back this up with a quote from the book.
The stability of the state relies on the ability to constrain the extremities of the elite or the poor through the implementation and prosperity of a middle class. This was unique to the Greek states, but elsewhere, tyranny and familial based monarchy prevaled. Instead of judging a leader based on consent of the people, they looked at their personal lineage or institutions like religion.
Tyrants emerged when leaders were appointed based on such irrational reasoning as divine right or nobility. Also, it was obviously important for tyrants or mobs to suspend or limit certain freedoms in order to control the populace.
Such devices as institutions and laws allowed for power to be placed rationally instead of placed in the hands of men who will inevitably succumb to passions and corruption, thus, "absolute power corrupts absolutely." This is why laws and constitutions were so important to the Greeks; men vary, laws don't.
Another issue that comes with concentrated power is the Greek idea of hubris. That is, irrational pride that comes with an abuse of power.
Very well written, but next time use evidence from the text as Thornton presents it.
A stable state is an ideal situation, and the middle class represents collective social satisfaction. Elaborate on this point. Why is the middle class so great? When the balance of society is awry, greed acknowledges an opportunity within the mass of discontent. These 'appetites' are a breeding ground for tolerance towards injustice and behaviors that would not be allowed in a stable state.
The best defense against tyranny and mob behavior begins with institutions. This includes restrictions to personal freedoms that would limit tyrant behavior but would not evolve into social oppression. Personal freedoms generally are not things like term limits; rather they are restrictions on personal decision one can make, such as prohibition of drug use. For example, laws that define term limits and boundaries of power for politicians. As Thornton describes "put power into institutions and offices regulated by custom and law. This reduces the mischieve wrought by chance and the unavoidable weaknesses of human character."
Another attempt to limit tyranny would be to promote the middle class lifestyle through propoganda and literature. This would encourage citizens to strive for a stable state, hence moderate lifestyle. This is good, but there are some jumps in the logic. Using Thornton as evidence is good, but it is better if you can use primary sources.
Thornton argues that, coupled with the stability of institutions, societies and cultures are safeguarded by the absolute, all-encompassing nature of the law. Explain how these laws are put in place by the people to safeguard against the tyrants that you discuss in the next sentence. Tyrants, then, gain control by way of cults of personality, and the abuse of the position once it is theirs often leads to heavy injustices. Without structure, society fails. For the western world, Democracy is the key. It places power into the hands of the collective, and thereby defends and upholds the "rights of man" as laid out in the Constitution. Try to relate this back to Ancient Athens and how it relates to Thornton's argument.
Political order is best achieved by proper allocation of power and a solid sense of civil obedience. The latter is upheld by the law, which is common to all and do not either favor or threaten the wealthy, middle class, nor the poor. In this chapter, we are focusing more on the laws restricting those in power as opposed to members of the citizenry. Revolutions can be kept at bay by promoting a just and fair system. You are on the right track, but next time use more evidence.
The middle class is vital to the stability of the state. Without a middle class, tyrants and the mob can gain control due to the passions that the lower and upper class are subject to. When the middle class fails, however, those in the upper class or those with power are able to gain more power and lead themselves to a position of absolute power which corrupts absolutely. Likewise, if the middle class fails, the masses can take control because as Solon said "poverty breeds discontent and disorder as grievous as that spawned by the ambition of the rich..." Great use of evidence. Some of the ways to limit this are:
- Placing authority in law instead of people. This is evident in Demaratus' quote: "They are free - yes - but not entirely free; for they have a master and that master is Law..."
- A lottery system for choosing public officials to uphold the law. Explain why this is good for preventing corruption.
- Anyone can participate government through the lottery system.
- Government jobs held by citizens, and have term limits to prevent corruption.
- The hubris of the masses corrupts the same way as it would one person. You could go into more detail on this point.
Tyrants can most easily gain control when a society's middle class has not been well-established/educated. If voters aren't well-educated (something that leads to increased rationalization) then there won't be a balance between appetite and reason. Those connections are very tenuous. For example, if power is held by only a select few and the majority of citizens are unable to control the appetites of the powerful/elite then progress becomes impossible and corruption flourishes. In order to limit these occurences, Solon suggests that a strong middle class should be established and "extremes of wealth or poverty be avoided." This allows for a variety of people from different classes to be empowered and not distracted by wealth or greed, which allows for the creation of a stable government. As Solon says, "many bad men are rich, many good men poor." Some ways to balance those in power include: audits, short terms, open debates where "oponents are persuaded rather than coerced." Good points.
Despite the stability of the middle class, it can still be subject to passion. This can be seen in their ability to accept the possibility of a political gene. The modern example of this is an amount of faith that is placed in prominent political names. Families such as the Kennedys and Bushes have inspired an unwarranted trust among the middle class.
The Greeks understood that a large middle class would be the most effectice base of a stable society. This group, "the class of citizens which is the most secure in a state, where they do not, like before, covet other men's goods; nor do they covet theirs" (114) was not only protected, but protected against. The motion from the middle class towards the influences of the lower society as well as the rich was a danger to society as a whole. Safeguards placed on those involved in government included audit, term limits, the lot and exile, due to "the fear of individual ambition for power, kept alive by the threat of the tyrant, partly explains the strange institution of ostracism..." (127). You could have started with this paragraph.
While the threat of tyranny was constant, the threat of mob rule remained. The Greeks tried to avoid this by giving the lower classes "only as much privilege as they have a right to" (113). The men who were citizens, owned land and therefore fought as soldiers had the right to vote and take part in the political process. This provided checks and balances between all class lines.
While the Greeks realized that no class was perfect, the understood that the middle was least susceptible to the extremes of tyanny and anarchy, and therefore hoped to preserve a stable society. Good use of evidence.
How do tyrants gain control, what devices can be used to limit that danger?
Tyrants gain control when there is not consensual government, when the power of one person or family is not restricted, and that person gives into his passions. Thornton argues that to limit tyranny there should be a large, stable, middle class that won't covet others or be covetted. As for the two extreme ends, according to Solon, give the poor the rights they deserve, and negotiate with the rich. You could use Solon's quote here. In order to keep all content, avoid the polarizition of extreme wealth or poverty. Another way to minimize tyranny and promote stability is the use of government of common interest or law, as Thornton describes "a flourishing state needs a government of laws, not of men." As stated by Plato a state attains salvation when the rulers are inferior to the law.
According to Thornton, one of the key comnponents of a stable society is a middle class that is both large and empowered. When there is a distinctly polarized lower and upper class, it creates a natural sense of discontent and animosity, where the poor desire the riches of the wealthy, and the wealthy attempt to further oppress the poor. This instability in a society creates an environment that is prone to the birth of a tyrant, as excessive wealth leads to greed and the desire for more power. Likewise, this situation dissatisfies the poor, who grow angry and hostile in their desire for the possessions of the rich. This creates anarchy and a mob take over, which is just another route to creating an unstable and unhappy society. Use some evidence here to back up your claims.
In order to avoid this situation, a government must create a sense of compromise between the upper and lower sections of society. The poor must be given rights and cannot be abused, and the wealthy must have some of their powers restricted. There can be neither excessive freedom nor excessive restraint, in order to build a stable and harmonious society. Good points.