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Rational for and Discussion of Assessment
Questions
This section presents an overview of the approach used
to the development of the self-assessment instruments. It
contains links to a specific discussion of each of the five
self-assessment instruments that have been completed so
far.
This Website was originally developed to support ICT in
education planning in Oregon. Thus, some questions in the
self-assessment instruments and some of the rational for
these questions is specific to teacher preservice and
inservice education in Oregon. For the most part, however,
the self-assessment instruments are independent of the
standards and the teacher education programs of any
particular state.
Specific Discussion for Each of the Five
Instruments
Instrument #
1. General-purpose ICT tools.
Instrument # 2.
ICT as an integral component of the content of the
disciplines you are planning to teach.
Instrument # 3.
ICT uses in instruction, assessment, student learning,
and student work.
Instrument # 4.
ICT as a personal productivity tool in a teacher's
professional work and career.
Instrument # 5.
ICT as a discipline of study.
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General
Considerations
In this document, we use the term Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) to designate the full range
of computer hardware, software, and connectivity, Thus we
include calculators, handheld computers, laptop computers,
microcomputers, mainframe and super computers, cell
telephones, digital still and video cameras, computer game
machines and games, and so on.
Instructional uses of computers began to creep into
precollege education in the late 1950s. This has been a
long, slow, but continuing process. Now (in 2003) we know
that:
- In the United States, K-12 schools have approximately one microcomputer per five students. While many of these are in computer labs, since 1999 more than half are in individual teachers' classrooms.
- Essentially all precollege schools in the United
States have Internet connectivity, and most classrooms
have Internet connectivity.
- It is increasingly common to find a pod of three to
five Internet-connected microcomputers in a
classroom.
- More than 3/4 of precollege students have access to a
microcomputer and the Internet at home,.
Click here for year 2002 data from a Corporation for
Public Broadcasting report.
- For many years, the US Federal Government has been
making a strong push for increased connectivity and for
improving the effective use of computers in precollege
education.
- In 1999, the number of employer-provided
microcomputers per white collar employee in the US
averaged 1.05 per employee.
Our educational systems are slow to change. Our
educational system has proven to be ill equipped to
accommodate the rapid pace of ICT change in this country and
in the world. A few of the most difficult challenges
include:
- The very rapid pace of change of ICT hardware.
Computers began to be mass produced in the early 1950s
and began to be widely used in business and industry
during the 1960s. During the past 35 years, the cost
effectiveness (the amount of computer capability per
dollar) has increased by a factor of more than a
million.
- During the past 35 years the ICT field has changed from having relatively little connectivity to having the Internet, to having the Web, to having Internet 2, which is about a thousand times as fast as the currently widely used Internet.
- During the past 35 years, a huge software industry
has developed. Some components of this industry focus
specifically on educational software. Other components
focus on entertainment, edutainment (a combination of
education and entertainment), on general purpose tools
useful to almost all computer users, and on special
purpose tools that are quite specific to particular
disciplines and application areas.
There is no question that ICT is important to business,
industry, research, government, and the military. ICT
provides powerful aids to representing and solving problems,
and to communication. ICT aids in the automation of many
processes that formerly were carried out by hand and/or by
use of slower and less reliable tools.
However, the continued rapid proliferation of ICT, and
the continued rapid improvement of the capabilities of ICT
systems, does not provide simple answers as to what our
precollege educational system should be doing with respect
to ICT. What has gradually emerged is relatively widespread
acceptance of assertions such as the following:
- Students and teachers should be provided with
adequate and appropriate ICT facilities.
- There should be ICT in education standards for
students, teachers, and school administrators.
- Students should receive adequate and appropriate
education in the use of ICT facilities.
- Curriculum content , instructional processes, and
student assessment should reflect appropriate use of ICT
that is thoroughly integrated throughout the
curriculum.
- Teachers and school administrators should receive preservice and inservice education to adequately prepare them to integrate ICT into curriculum content, instructional processes, assessment, and their other professional work.
These self-assessment instruments given on this Website
make use of the 7-point "Expertise" scale pictured
below.
This is a Likert scale, and it is certainly not an equal
interval scale. The scale was selected so that it would have
a mid point--in this case, the ISTE National Educational
Technology Standards for Teachers. In essence, these are the
standards that are being used by NCATE (National Council for
Accreditation of Teacher Education) since NCATE developed
the standards with the help of ISTE. Click
here for a discussion of the seven points on this
scale.
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ISTE Standards
The International Society
for Technology in Education (ISTE) is this county's
major professional society working in the field of
Information and Communication Technology in precollege
education and teacher education. It was established in 1979
by David Moursund, and its National Headquarters are located
in Eugene, Oregon.
ISTE has developed:
The National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) for
Teachers is broken into six major components, titled:
- Technology Operations and Concepts.
- Planning and Designing Learning Environments and
Experiences.
- Teaching, Learning, and the Curriculum.
- Assessment and Evaluation.
- Productivity and Professional Practice.
- Social, Ethical, Legal, and Human Issues.
Click
here to access a detailed list of the six components and
their sub components.
While at first glance the ISTE Standards seem comprehensive, they give short shift to the discipline of Computer and Information Science (CIS). The first of the six standards states:
1. TECHNOLOGY OPERATIONS AND CONCEPTS.
Teachers demonstrate a sound understanding of technology
operations and concepts. Teachers:
- demonstrate introductory knowledge, skills, and understanding of concepts related to technology (as described in the ISTE National Education Technology Standards for Students);
- demonstrate continual growth in technology knowledge and skills to stay abreast of current and emerging technologies.
An examination of the profiles for students shows some
mention of topics commonly considered to be parts of the
field of Computer and Information Science. For example
- Item 8 in the Grades 3-5 Profiles states that
students "use technology resources (e.g., calculators,
data collection probes, videos, educational software) for
problem solving, self-directed learning, and extended
learning activities.
- Item 1 in the Grades 6-8 Profile states that
students: "Apply strategies for identifying and solving
routine hardware and software problems that occur during
everyday use.
- Item 9 in the Grades 9-12 Profiles states that
students "investigate and apply expert systems,
intelligent agents, and simulations in real-world
situations.
However, there is no mention of students learning about the development and testing of procedures, procedureal thinking, computer programming,, and other topics that lie at the core of the discipline of Computer and Information Science.
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International Technology Education
Association (ITEA)
Many people use the general term "technology" when they specifically mean computer technology or ICT. Thus, for example, the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) specifically focuses on ICT in education, but its title does not reflect this fact. The International Technology Education Association (ITEA) focuses on the full range of technologies,
Quoting from the ITEA
Website:
The International Technology Education
Association is the largest professional educational
association, principal voice, and information
clearinghouse devoted to enhancing technology education
through experiences in our schools (K-12). Its membership
encompasses individuals and institutions throughout the
world with the primary membership in North America.
ITEA's mission is to advance technological
capabilities for all people and to nurture and promote
the professionalism of those engaged in these
pursuits.
ITEA seeks to meet the professional needs and
interests of members as well as to improve public
understanding of technology education and its
contributions
ITEA represents more than 40,000 technology educators
in the U.S. alone who are developers, administrators, and
university personnel in the field representing all levels
of education.
ITEA corporate members are comprised of leading
technology companies.
ITEA conducts various professional development
programs and holds an Annual Conference -- the largest
technology education showcase of exhibits and educational
sessions in the world.
ITEA publishes The Technology Teacher, Technology and
Children,The Journal of Technology Education, and a
variety of other publications and videos that lead the
profession by providing teaching directions,
instructional ideas, and networking opportunities.
ITEA has ten primary committees that coordinate all
aspects of technology education and sponsor dozens of
meetings, conferences, and exhibits each year.
ITEA sponsors an active honors and awards program that
recognizes outstanding teachers and programs (K-12) from
states, provinces and countries that are affiliated with
the Association.
ITEA also presents award certificates and supports
other programs which recognize outstanding efforts in the
technology teaching profession.
ITEA conducts a vigorous public policy program,
frequently providing information to government, agencies,
associations, and other special interest groups
concerning technology education. The Association strives
to provide an understanding of the importance of
technology education to the future growth and well-being
of all nations.
What is Technology?
"Broadly speaking, technology is how people modify the
natural world to suit their own purposes. From the Greek
word techne, meaning art or artifice or craft, technology
literally means the act of making or crafting, but more
generally it refers to the diverse collection of
processes and knowledge that people use to extend human
abilities and to satisfy human needs and wants." (Excerpt
from Standards for Technological Literacy, ITEA,
2000)
There are many definitions of technology and many
misrepresentations of what technology is meant to be.
Below you will find the terms and definitions that we use
in order to discuss this widely misunderstood term.
Technology--1. Human innovation in action that
involves the generation of knowledge and processes to
develop systems that solve problems and extend human
capabilities. 2. The innovation, change, or modification
of the natural environment to satisfy perceived human
needs and wants.
Technological Literacy--The ability to use, manage,
understand, and assess technology.
Technology education--A study of technology, which
provides an opportunity for students to learn about the
processes and knowledge related to technology that are
needed to solve problems and extend human
capabilities.
ITEA has developed technology literacy standards for
technology education in K-12 education. While these cover
far more than just ICT in education, ICT is inherently a
part of many of the standards. Here are the ITEA Technology
Literacy Standards:
The Nature of
Technology
Standard 1: Students will develop an understanding of
the characteristics and scope of technology.
Standard 2: Students will develop an understanding of
the core concepts of technology.
Standard 3: Students will develop an understanding of
the relationships among technologies and the connections
between technology and other fields of study.
Technology and Society
Standard 4: Students will develop an understanding of
the cultural, social, economic, and political effects of
technology.
Standard 5: Students will develop an understanding of
the effects of technology on the environment.
Standard 6: Students will develop an understanding of
the role of society in the development and use of
technology.
Standard 7: Students will develop an understanding of
the influence of technology on history.
Design
Standard 8: Students will develop an understanding of
the attributes of design.
Standard 9: Students will develop an understanding of
engineering design.
Standard 10: Students will develop an understanding of
the role of troubleshooting, research and development,
invention and innovation, and experimentation in problem
solving.
Abilities of a Technological
World
Standard 11: Students will develop abilities to apply
the design process.
Standard 12: Students will develop abilities to use
and maintain technological products and systems.
Standard 13: Students will develop abilities to assess
the impact of products and systems.
The Designed World
Standard 14: Students will develop an understanding of
and be able to select and use medical technologies.
Standard 15: Students will develop an understanding of
and be able to select and use agricultural and related
biotechnologies.
Standard 16: Students will develop an understanding of
and be able to select and use energy and power
technologies.
Standard 17: Students will develop an understanding of
and be able to select and use information and
communication technologies.
Standard 18: Students will develop an understanding of
and be able to select and use transportation
technologies.
Standard 19: Students will develop an understanding of
and be able to select and use manufacturing
technologies.
Standard 20: Students will develop an understanding of
and be able to select and use construction
technologies.
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Teacher Standards and Practices
Commission for the State of Oregon
TSPC specifies standards that must be met by all
preservice teachers in general education and special
eduction, regardless of the grade levels and subject areas
in which they are preparing to teach. These are stated in
considerable generality. The word "technology" is only
mentioned once in these standards, and the word "computer"
or equivalent terms is not mentioned. Here is the first of
the five major standards. Notice the mention of "technology
in 1e
- CURRICULUM PLANNING: Plan instruction that supports
student progress in learning and is appropriate for the
developmental level.
- Select and write learning goals for units of instruction consistent with school's long-term curriculum goals, state content standards and district standards, research findings on how students learn, and mental maturity of students; [Remark: The State of Oregon's Common Curriculum Goals include ICT goals that are remarkably like the ISTE NETS for Students.
- Determine the current performance level of one's students with respect to the learning goals established for a unit of instruction;
- Establish objectives within the unit of instruction that will be useful in formulating daily lessons and in evaluating the progress of students toward the attainment of unit goals;
- Determine content, skills, and processes that assist students in accomplishing desired unit outcomes, and design learning activities leading to mastery;
- Select and organize materials, equipment, and technologies needed to teach a unit of instruction;
- Adapt unit and lessons plans for students with diverse needs and for students with varying cultural, social, and linguistic backgrounds; and
- Estimate the time required within a unit for teacher-directed instruction, student-managed learning and practice, student evaluation/reporting, and reteaching/problem solving.
Item 1a and the following quote are particularly
important to ICT uses in education.
…the Technology
Common Curriculum Goals were adopted by the Oregon State Board in March 2002:
- Demonstrate proficiency in the use of
technological tools and devices.
- Select and use technology to enhance learning and
problem solving.
- Access, organize and analyze information to make
informed decisions, using one or more
technologies.
- Use technology in an ethical and legal manner and
understand how technology affects society.
- Design, prepare and present unique works using
technology to communicate information and ideas.
- Extend communication and collaboration with peers,
experts and other audiences using
telecommunications.
The Technology Common Curriculum Goals Website then goes
on to explain:
While all schools in Oregon are equipped with
technology and most have a technology plan, each school's
capacity and resources are different. Consequently school
districts may, as some already have, establish their own
content standards and benchmarks in technology around
their individual needs and resources.
National standards in technology have been developed
through a partnership between the International Society
for Technology in Education (ISTE), the U.S. Department
of Education and a wide variety of curriculum and
educational organizations. These national standards as
well as input from teachers, technology specialists,
administrators, business representatives and professional
organizations were used in reviewing and revising
Oregon's Technology CCGs.
As noted at the beginning of this section, TSPC Standards
are quite general. In addition, the Oregon Common Curriculum
Goals are rather general, and they do not provide specific
measurable goals and objectives for student achievement.
Thus, individual preservice teacher education programs are
left with the challenge of determining details of ICT in
education knowledge and skills that they want and expect
their preservice teachers to be able to demonstrate. The
Self-assessment instruments have been designed to provide
some help in that endeavor.
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Other Rationale
This is a "miscellaneous, catchall" section. It allows
for rather general arguments to support the development and
implementation of high ICT in education standards for
preservice and inservice teachers. Here are some samples of
such arguments:
- ICT provides a wide variety of tools that enhance and
increase human mental and physical productivity. A person
can learn to make an introductory, low level, use of many
of these tools with a minimum of formal instruction.
However, effective use of these tools requires a
significant amount of formal instruction and practice. As
an example, elementary school students can easily learn
to use single words in a search engine to do Web
searches. But, consider the learning and experience
needed to make effective use of a search engine such as
FreeFind (which can be used to search the specific
Website you are currently using):
1. phrase search
- The search engine supports three types of phrase search.
To match an exact phrase, use quotes around the phrase.
Example: "free search engine"
To match a near (within a couple of words) phrase, use square brackets [ ] around the words.
Example: [free search engine]
To match a far (within several words) phrase, use braces { } around the words
Example: {free search engine}
2. + and - qualifiers
- If you prepend a word with + that word is required to be on the page.
If you prepend a word with - that word is required to not be on the page.
Example: +always -never
3. * wildcard
- If a query word ends with a * all words on a page which start the same way as that query word will match.
Example: gift*
4. ? wildcard
- If a query word contains a ? any character will match that position.
Example: b?g
5. Boolean search
- You can use the following Boolean operators in your search: AND, OR, NOT. These operators MUST be in capital letters.
Example: (contact AND us) OR (about AND us)
6. All of the techniques listed above can be combined:
- Example: +alway* -ne??r*
- It is, of course, trite to say "computers are here to
stay." More commonly, now, people argue that ICT is
becoming ubiquitous, a routine part of an ordinary
person's everyday life. Such ICT enhances the information
processing and problem-solving capabilities of its users.
However, it takes significant education and experience
for an ICT user to move beyond a rather low level of use.
Using a microcomputer as a typewriter is indeed a step up
from using an electric typewriter. But it is a a small
step relative to the capabilities of word processing and
desktop publication and other aids to thinking and
effective written communication provided by a
microcomputer. The same analysis holds for the full range
of general tools available in a typical microcomputer
system. The goal is to empower students by helping them
gain the ICT knowledge and skills that move them well
beyond the low level, "first order" uses of ICT. For a
discussion of moving beyond the first order, click
here.
- Computer-Based Assessment and assessment of ICT
knowledge and skills are now two important aspects of
accountability. Increasingly, high stakes tests will be
delivered by computer, using computer-adaptive
testing. And, as more and more states, districts, and
schools require students to gain ICT knowledge and
skills, there need to be appropriate methods to assess
the knowledge and skills. Part of this duty falls to the
individual classroom teacher.
- Many people and organizations have addressed general issues on possible standards for ICT within specific discipline areas. Here are two examples::
Swan, Karen (1999). Nonprint Media and Technology Literacy Standards for K-12 Teaching and Learning. Accessed 7/22/03: http://cela.albany.edu/standards/index.html.
This reference is for a full copy of the preliminary
report. The final report was published in Journal of
Educational Computing Research, Vol 23 No 1, 2000, p.
85-100.
Here is a copy of the abstract of the final
report:
- This article suggests a set of cumulative standards for assessing the use of non print media and electronic technologies in elementary, middle, and high school classrooms. The proposed standards are culled from existing standards created for educational technologies, information literacy, and the English language arts, and are offered as a starting point for thinking about expanding our notions of literacy and literacy instruction in the schools. Most importantly, from this perspective, the standards are categorized as addressing three types of literacies - basic skills, critical literacies, and construction skills - to encourage teachers to incorporate all three when integrating technology use in teaching and learning.
Mills, Steven C. Projects and research: Multimedia Laboratory. Accessed 3/18/04: http://media.lsi.ku.edu/research/index.html. See the article, The Technology Integration Standards Configuration Matrix [PDF]. This is a nice listing of a number of possible areas of ICT expertise and a scale that goes along with each.
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