Bulge and Nucleus of the Milky Way

The above shows the center of the Milky Way galaxy with the constellation Sagittarius superimposed on the image. The center of the Milky Way sits just above the spout of the teapot. The bulge sits 27,000 light years from the Earth with coordinates RA = 17h45m40.04s and δ = -29:00:28.1 (J2000). The bulge is not easily observed in the visible, UV, or soft x-rays. It is best observed in the γ-ray, hard x-rays, IR, sub-millimeter, and radio.

The bulge of the Milky Way is more spherical than the disk and is composed of stars which are more reddish than those in the disk (===>they are more evolved or low mass, but are still considered Pop I stars). The bulge is roughly 30,000 to 40,000 light years in diameter.

The central region of the Galactic Bulge (the nucleus) is interesting because it shows activity similar to that shown by Active Galactic Nuclei, AGNs (although at a considerably lower level).

• The core harbors ~ 1,600 stars per cubic light year. This is several 100,000 times as dense as the average stellar density of our Galaxy! Further, when one approaches the center of the Galaxy, one finds a dense cluster containing roughly 1 million stars with a stellar density around 10 million times as high as in the Solar neighborhood.

• Near the center of the Milky Way lies the bright radio source Sagittarius A. There is structure on scales ranging from 600 light years (the filamaents) to what appears to be a ring of material on scales of 10-15 light years to structure on scales of 10 Astronomical Units (~80 light minutes ~ 1.5 billion km)--an Astronomical Unit is the average distance of the Earth from the Sun.

• Further observations reveal a bright central object nearly at the exact center of the Galaxy, Sagittarius A^* . Just as one can measure galaxy rotation curves to gain a sense of the mass and mass distribution within galaxies, similar ideas can be applied to any gravitating system.
  • For the galactic center, one may infer the mass for Sgr A^* --(4.1-4.3)x10⁶ Solar masses--and that it is compact, 0.1 astronomical units, from study of stars (SO-2) near the Galactic center. SO-2 has orbital period - 15.2 years with pericenter = 17 light hours.

  • The shortest period star, SO-102, has period = 11.5 years.

  • Sgr A^*, typically has small Luminosity, L = 10³⁶ erg/s. If Sgr A^* is powered by accretion, we have
    L = GM_*S/R_*=4.45x10²¹S,
    where S is the mass accretion rate. For the observed L, we expect S = 10^14-15 g/s. Modeling the mass loss from the stars in the bulge leads to the estimate S_b = 6x10²⁰ g/s. This estimate is >> than that predicted from L. Suggested that this implies the existence of an event horizon.

  • VLBI sub-millimeter (1.3 mm) observations (JCMT on Mauna Kea, ARO/SMT on Mt Graham, AZ, and CARMA array at Cedar Flat, CA) observed Sgr A^* for three consecutive nights in 2009. Detected changes on the third night consistent with variability on length scales of a few Schwarzschild radius.

  • An exciting new instrumental project is the development of the Event Horizon Telescope. The Event Horizon Telescope will extend the above sub-mm (1.3 mm and 0.8 mm) VLBI experiment by adding the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile, the Large Millimeter Telescope (LMT) in Mexico, and the South Pole Telescope (SPT). Greatly increases the sensitivity of the array, and the N-S and E-W coverage to increase coverage in the UV plane.

  • Massive objects with small sizes remind one of Black Holes. A black hole is an object which is so dense that not even light can escape from its surface.

    Schwarzschild Radius, Event Horizon, and Singularity The escape speed from the Schwarzschild Radius is equal to the speed of light, c. Inside the Schwarzschild radius, the escape is even higher; it is larger than c. Because the speed of light is the fastest any massive object can move, this means nothing can escape from inside the Schwarzschild Radius not even light, hence the name. The Schwarzschild Radius then defines the Event Horizon; events which take place within the Event Horizon cannot leak out and affect the rest of the Universe! At the Event Horizon, we find that space and time change character, and matter once inside the Event Horizon inexorably flows to the center of the black hole getting compressed to infinite density in the Singularity of the black hole, the central point of the black hole!!

    Spinning black holes, known as Kerr Black Holes , have interesting properties. At the Static Limit, spacetime is dragged forward at the speed of light, inside or which objects cannot be at rest. Furthermore, in the region enclosed by the static limit (the ergosphere) spacetime is dragged forward by the rotation of the black hole at speeds exceeding the speed of light with respect to a stationary observer. The inner boundary of this region is the Outer Event Horizon of the Black Hole. The region in between the Static Limit and the outer Event Horizon is called the Ergosphere. As an object falls through the ergosphere, the black hole drags it forward, speeding up its motion (gaining energy at the expense of the hole). Because the ergosphere is outside the Outer Event Horizon, the energized particle can escape to our Universe, stealing some of the energy of the Black Hole! This is known as the Penrose Process. The Penrose Process is exceedingly efficient; an object with mass M can enter with zero energy and then escape with 0.29 Mc2. This is a very efficient process. In the nuclear fusion processes which power the Sun, an amount of energy is released which corresponds to only 0.007Mc2!!

    Another interesting effect can occur inside a Kerr Black Hole. The inner boundary of the ergosphere is the outer Event Horizon of the hole, which implies there is an inner Event Horizon for the hole. This leads to a strange occurrence. At the outer Event Horizon, space and time change character, and an object inexorably moves in space toward the inner horizon. At the inner horizon, space and time change character again and the object no longer inexorably marches toward the Singularity (the ring-like feature in the figure). Instead, an observer could avoid the singularity (and perhaps even pass through it) and emerge in another apace-time; also it is possible that Closed Time-like Curves exist

    Cosmic Censorship Cosmic Censorship asserts that naked singularities cannot exist (singularities must always be cloaked by Event Horizons). Roger Penrose propsed Cosmic Censorship in the 1960s becuase of the fact that causality may break down singularities. Cosmic Censorship has not been proven for all circumstances; for example, in Kerr black holes naked singularities are possible but it is not known under what physical scenario they could arise. Interestingly, the possibility of traversable wormholes is intertwined with the notion of Cosmic Censorship.

  • The Schwarzschild radius of a black hole whose mass is the same as that of the Sun is 2.95 [M/M(Sun)] kilometers. A 4.3 million Solar mass black hole would then have a radius of 13 million kilometers, or less than a millionth of a light year. This is much smaller than the 10-15 light year sizes mentioned above for the gas ring seen around Sgr A. This evidence thus does not require the presence of a black hole at the center of our Galaxy. A more stringent and starting to become interesting constraint comes from the fact that because the density of stars near the nucleus of our Galaxy is huge, stars are expected to pass close to the very center of our Galaxy.
    A Journey into a Black Hole (Youtube)

    ---

    Infrared observations have revealed the presence of several stars at the galactic center and have tracked their orbital motions over roughly the last 10-15 year period. The object S2 moves in an orbit whose size is only 950 Astronomical Units ~ 1 light-week which led to the mass estimate of 4.3 million Solar masses, and the motion of object S16 which passed within 45 Astronomical Units (a little larger than the size of Pluto's orbit about the Sun), less than 1 light-day of the center of the Galaxy. Although these are tiny, tiny orbits, they are still not small enough to resolve the black hole question. To nail the question of whether there is or is not a black hole at the center of our Galaxy requires that we peer into the nucleus of our Galaxy with resolution of 13 million km or approximately one-tenth of an Astronomical Unit (or an object whose size is smaller than the orbit of Mercury). This is a difficult proposition.

  • So, although it is suggestive that the core of our Galaxy might be a low-powered version of an AGN, the case has not yet been made conclusively.
  • Moving forward, however, let's imagine that there is a black hole at the center of our Galaxy to see why this is such an attractive ides. Because stars such as S2 and S16 pass close to the nucleus of our Galaxy, near the purported black hole of our Galaxy, tidal forces arise.

    Tidal Forces Strong tidal forces from the black hole arise and may rip the stars apart (much as comets are ripped apart when they pass close to the Sun) allowing their gases to be devoured by the black hole. Tidal forces arise because of the dependence of the gravitational force on the separation of the masses. The near side of the object is pulled from its center which, in turn, is pulled from the far side of the object. Because the tidal force depends on the difference of forces on an object, the strength of the tidal force depends strongly on the separation of the objects. As the separation decreases, the tidal force strongly increases in strength.

    In the process of devouring the stars, large amounts of energy are released as the material spirals into the potential well of the black hole. This energy release process may nearly be 100 times as efficent as the typical nuclear reactions which occur in the cores of stars (recall that the Penrose process was around 40 times as efficient).

    How often must the black hole eat in order to power the activity of the nucleus of the Milky Way?

    The nucleus of our Galaxy produces energy at the the prodigious rate of 10³³ Watts; the Sun only produces energy at the rate of 4 x 10²⁶ Watts! Despite this huge power output, the black hole at the center of our Galaxy need only eat roughly 1 star every few million years to fuel its engine.

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