Brief remarks about philosophy and religion in the Ming Dynasty

Philosophy

Since the Song Dynasty, Neo-Confucianism, the philosophy developed by Zhu Xi (1130-1200) which integrated the Confucian ideology, a philosophy of rational inquiry and aspects of metaphysics as perceived relevant in other religious and philosophical teachings had become the dominant ideology in among Chinese literati.

Guided by an immaterial principle inherent in all beings and giving them essence, man should investigate the principle inherent in things. At the same time one should pursue the path of cultivation of principles of the mind [self-cultivation].

In the Ming Dynasty, Wang Yangming (1472-1529；= Wang Shouren) propagated the idea, that this principle was not only giving form and essence to all beings (and things) and thus form the essence of the universe, but also existed in the human mind. He objected to the separation of the principle in things and in the mind. [A famous example why in his opinion principle and mind could not be separated was the concept of filial piety. He said that if principle were outside the mind, then the principle of filial piety would be irrelevant as soon as a parent dies.]

This universal principle, which was seen as innate in all human beings, could be cultivated through practicing humaneness and giving one’s behavior a strong moral basis, while Zhi Xi saw the exploration of the principle as an intellectual endeavor. The universal moral laws are the Principle of Nature’, which is innate knowledge and intelligence. It reveals itself in the behavior of every human being, no matter whether a person was literate or had received a sophisticated education. To know oneself, one’s strengths and weaknesses, and to bring one’s creative spirit and direct, spontaneous, and intuitive insights into a balance of (theoretical) knowledge and (practical) action was seen as the ultimate moral goal of every human being.

“Knowledge is the beginning of action, and action is the completion of knowledge.”

Religion

The emperors of the Ming had different religious inclinations. While Zhu Yuanzhang supported Chinese Buddhism (and aimed to eliminate Tibetan Lamaism, which had been propagated by the Mongol rulers), and was also increasingly interested in the writings of Daoism (he even wrote a commentary on the Daodejing), the Yongle emperor (Zhu Di) tried to re-establish the connection with Tibetan Buddhism by inviting the karmapa Halima to Nanjing and asking him to perform a sacrifice for the emperors’ deceased parents. His attempts to make political use of the connection with the lama failed due to Halima’s resistance to allow Chinese troops to occupy Tibet, although the emperor had made him the official leader of all Chinese Buddhists and had hoped that this ‘imperial grace’ would earn him Halima’s approval to invade Tibet.

Christiantiy had found its way to China in several periods, but only became successful with the advent of the Jesuit missionaries. The most prominent Jesuit was Matteo Ricci, a priest, mathematician, and astronomer who also knew how to read and edit maps and who read, wrote, and spoke Chinese. By the end of the Ming dynasty the generations of Jesuit missionaries who had been sent to China had converted ca. 150,000 Chinese to Catholicism.

[We will hear more about him in one of the presentations.]

Since the Mongol Yuan dynasty Muslim officials had served multiple times in Chinese government functions. In the Ming Islam was largely tolerated, but not always were Chinese Muslims appreciated as neighbors. On several occasions violent actions against Muslim communities led to severe persecutions.

Medical knowledge transmitted by Muslim physicians was appreciated by the Chinese and gained influence in the diet. In addition, Islamic art gained recognition. Cobalt became an indispensable decoration element of Chinese porcelain.

One of the most prominent Buddhist monks in the Ming was abbot Yunqi Zhuhong (1535-1615), who advocated the attempt to integrate the most important non-controversial aspects of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in the ‘Three Teachings in One’.

Trying to avoid confrontations with Confucianism and Daoism he stressed [religious] self-cultivation. Specializations in the doctrine of different sects were of no importance to him. Instead, he followed a pragmatic combination of Chan [=Zen] and Pure Land Buddhism in which he integrated elements of Confucian and Daoist origin.

He also created a significant Buddhist lay movement which allowed the lay communities to live according to Buddhist guidance without having to leave their families and following a celibate life. In his guidelines he established ‘accounts’ of merit points to inspire the communities to live a life in accordance with Buddhist principles and acquire good karma. His catalogue of merit and demerit points had several chapters: Good deeds inspired by loyalty and filiality, altruism and compassion, and religious practices that were rewarded with merit points; Bad deeds (of disloyalty and unfilial behavior, non-altruism and not showing compassion, and deeds that could harm the Buddhist teachings or community. Examples: For each domestic animal saved, that has no power to return human kindness, count ten merits. To cause one person’s death by spells, prayers, and curses counts as one hundred demerits.

(see Chun-fang Yu, The Renewal of Buddhism in china. Chu-hung and the Late Ming Synthesis. New York: Columbia University Press 1981.)