Ionization is any process by which electrically neutral atoms or molecules are converted to electrically charged atoms or molecules (ions). Ionization is one of the principal ways that radiation, such as charged particles and X rays, transfers its energy to matter.

Ionization by collision occurs in gases at low pressures when an electric current is passed through them. If the electrons constituting the current have sufficient energy (the ionization energy is different for each substance), they force other electrons out of the neutral gas molecules, producing ion pairs that individually consist of the resultant positive ion and detached negative electron. Negative ions are also formed as some of the electrons attach themselves to neutral gas molecules. Gases may also be ionized by intermolecular collisions at high temperatures.

Ionization, in general, occurs whenever sufficiently energetic charged particles or radiant energy travel through gases, liquids, or solids. Charged particles, such as alpha particles and electrons from radioactive materials, cause extensive ionization along their paths. Energetic neutral particles, such as neutrons and neutrinos, are more penetrating and cause almost no ionization. Pulses of radiant energy, such as X-ray and gamma-ray photons, can eject electrons from atoms by the photoelectric effect to cause ionization. The energetic electrons resulting from the absorption of radiant energy and the passage of charged particles in turn may cause further ionization, called secondary ionization. A certain minimal level of ionization is present in the Earth's atmosphere because of continuous absorption of cosmic rays from space and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

Excerpt from the Encyclopedia Britannica without permission.