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            While Spain today is a unified, single political entity, history did not always indicate that this would come to be.  From pre-Roman times to the Christian Reconquista, the Iberian peninsula has consisted of numerous distinctive regions throughout the centuries.  Even today, Spain consists of 18 distinct regions, each with its own Parliament and often its own distinct language.  Today's region-specific dialects, flags, and vocabularies emphasize the distinctiveness of each area.  They are clear evidence that what today is simply known as "Spain" has for many more years been a group of distinct cultural and political entities that only formed a single nation after centuries of fragmentation.
            Beginning millennia ago, in 1100 BCE, when Phoenician traders first arrived on the Iberian Peninsula, the land was already home to numerous complex societies, some urban and other agrarian, each with their own languages and customs.  By the third century BCE Iberia was controlled by Rome, and during his reign Augustus divided the peninsula into three distinct provinces: Baetica in the south, Lusitania in the west, and Hispania Citerior in the east. 
            The end of Roman authority came at the hands of not one, but multiple raiding invaders from across Europe who all held distinct areas.  When the vast majority of the peninsula came to be ruled by the Visigoths, it was once again divided into separate provinces.
            The peninsula would again be invaded in 711 by a mix of Arab and Berber forces from northern Africa, and by the 11th century ACE, the Muslim-ruled Al-Andalus would be separated into distinct “taifa” kingdoms, each with its own leader and politics.  Meanwhile in northern Iberia, smaller Christian kingdoms spoke their own languages and implemented different laws.  By the time the Christian Reconquista began, different Christian kingdoms claimed their own Muslim lands.  Kingdoms united over time via marriages and alliances, but only in 1492 did the Christians conquer Granada, the final Muslim holding, to unite all of Spain.
            Today Spain remains a united country, but evidence remains of its fragmented past.  Portugal can be taken as its own example.  Separated geographically from the rest of the peninsula, the region developed its own unique history during the Middle Ages and today remains a distinct country with its own language.  Even in Spain today, individuals often consider themselves members of their region first, and Spanish second.  The history of Spain is a long and complicated one, but has achieved political unity only relatively recently.

 

The natural resources of Spain were considerable and indeed in some periods fell into the realm of being fabulous. Unlike other Mediterranean countries, Spain was a particularly rich source of minerals, including gold, silver, lead, and copper. These resources formed the basis of prosperity for natives and were eagerly sought by outsiders.

 

When the Romans arrived on the northeast coast of the Iberian Peninsula in the mid-third century BC, they found considerable linguistic and cultural diversity. Keltic and Iberian groups were scattered throughout; the Phoenicians favored the coastal areas in the south. We cannot speak of any common language or culture in this period.

 

 

After defeating Carthage in the Second Punic War in 202 BC, the Romans began to extend their control into the interior of the Iberian Peninsula.  In 27 BCE the Roman Emperor Augustus divided the peninsula into three provinces: Hispania Baetica, Hispania Taraconensis, and Lusitania.  The Romans brought Latin, the foundation of the Spanish language.  The three provinces provided the Roman Empire with valuable exports, including olive oil, metal, and wine. By 80 AD a significant number of communities enjoyed the benefits of Roman citizenship.

 

After more than five centuries of Roman rule, the early fifth century CE saw great migrations of Germanic peoples, including the Alans (an Iranian group), Suebi, Vandals, and Visigoths to Iberia.  These invasions marked the end of Roman rule in the Iberian Peninsula and the establishment of barbarian kingdoms.  There followed a major decline in the quality of urban life.

 

The Visigoths established control of the peninsula by AD 456.  The Visigothic administration continued to use many aspects of Roman life, including aqueducts, bridges, and roads, but none of them were maintained at earlier levels.  The Visigoths ruled for nearly three centuries.

 

By AD 560, the Roman Emperor Justinian had reclaimed some areas in southern Iberia. The majority of the Peninsula remained under Visigothic control.

 

By AD 600, Visigothic control expanded to include again most of the Iberian Peninsula except for marginal areas in the southern coast.

 

In AD 711, a mix of Arab and Berber forces crossed the Straits of Gibraltar from northern Africa and overthrew the Visigothic kingdom. 

 

By AD 721 the Muslim invaders dominated most of the peninsula.  The Muslim-controlled area of Iberia was known as Al-Andalus, and for four centuries it covered most of the peninsula.  Only small Christian kingdoms remained in the North.  The Muslims brought great advancements in agriculture, architecture, science, and mathematics to the peninsula.

 

By AD 1010 Al-Andalus was divided by civil war, fragmenting into smaller political units, known as the "taifa" kingdoms.  A separate leader ruled each taifa, and boundaries were flexible and changed often. 

 

As Al-Andalus was fragmenting, the Christians in the North began efforts to re-conquer their land from the Muslims.  This effort was known as the "Reconquista."  Existing kingdoms grew larger and new kingdoms formed as well.  Each Christian kingdom had separate laws, customs, and languages.

 

In 1128 CE, the kingdom of Portugal was established.  Portugal has remained a separate political identity from Spain ever since.

 

By AD 1150, Christian control of the Iberian Peninsula had expanded further south. The kingdoms of Aragon and Cataluyna (Catalonia) had united to form the larger kingdom of Aragon.

 

In AD 1230, Castile and Leon united under Fernando III to form the largest and most powerful Iberian kingdom.  Thereafter followed centuries of relatively unchanging borders.

 

In AD 1469 the heir to the Argonese throne, Fernando, married the heiress to the Castilian throne, Isabella.  This “union” left the majority of the peninsula united, with the exception of the only remaining Muslim holding, Granada.

 

In 1492 CE Castile-Leon captured Granada, bringing an end to the “Reconquista” and completing the re-conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.