Shin Shin Tang

Chapter 8: 251-277

In this section, Tong begins by defining ecofeminism, which is based on the belief that the oppression of women is closely connected to the oppression of nature. She distinguishes ecofeminism from deep ecology; whereas deep ecologists identify 'human-centeredness' as the main source of problems, ecofeminists specifically target 'male-centeredness'. However, there is a wide range of opinions on how best to liberate women given this close link to nature.

Some believe that in order for women to be liberated, the cultural association of women with nature should be severed. These include Simone de Beauvoir and Sherry Ortner. They argue that women should strive to achieve the same attributes as men, which includes having equal cultural power and the ability to operate upon nature. Similarly, social, or social-constructionist feminists seek to deemphasize the special relationship between women and nature. However, in contrast to de Beauvoir and Ortner, social ecofeminists believe that both men and women are cultural and natural.

There are others who believe that the link between women and nature should be strengthened even further. These feminists are generally from a radical-culturalist background and promote the valuation traits typically associated with women: caring, nurturing, and intuition. Similar to the cultural feminists, spiritual ecofeminists believe in eschewing male-centered culture, specifically "patriarchal religions," and practice earth-based spiritualities. In this paradigm, both the female body and nature are considered sacred and women's relationship to nature is actually closer than men's relationship to nature.

Finally, Tong describes the socialist ecofeminist position, which promotes the interconnection between all social systems and seeks to abolish dualist thinking. Socialist ecofeminists political change, advocating the replacement of representative democracy with participatory democracy, as well as cultural change in which men and women share equally in responsibility for caring for the environment.

In the last section of the chapter, Tong summarizes critiques of each of the approaches to ecofeminism. The spiritual eco-feminists, for example, are at times viewed as "flaky" and uncommitted to political change. The social and social-constructionist ecofeminists have been criticized for being reactionary in denying women's relationship to nature. Finally some object to the socialist ecofeminist position as being too difficult to implement. However, despite their differences, all ecofeminists agree that all human beings are connected to each other and to nature. Tong concludes that it is vital for all people to participate actively in the preservation of the environment.