English 108     World Literature    Mr. Teich

Haiku -- Background and Analysis

[adapted from: The Asia Society and the US/Japan Conference for Cultural and Education Exchange, 1982]

1. Simplicity

Certainly, this is a word most people know. Simplicity suggests what is easily understood . . . [and] reducing things to bare essentials. But simplicity is an abstract term with profound implications for art and philosophy. Often, simplicity of expression carries complex meanings, as in the case of much haiku.

In Japan the preference for simplicity appears in many aspects of Japanese imagination, thought, and spiritual experience. For example, a bridge formed by a single slab of rock is a common feature in many Japanese gardens. In contrast with a fancy wooden bridge, the rock creates an appearance of naturalness and simplicity. There are no great, fragrant flowerbeds in the typical Japanese.garden. The Japanese prefer economy -- just the minimum needed to create a total effect of naturalness. A traditional Japanese house is also simply decorated and furnished. A Japanese living room may have cushions and a table as the only furnishings. Screens function as partitions. The real and the natural, as opposed to the artificial and the unnatural, are prized qualities. Of course, this description of the traditional ideal conflicts with the modern reality [in Japan] of . . . cluttered houses, crammed with things accumulated by rapid consumerism.

Simplicity characterizes haiku poetry in a variety of ways. First, the structural requirements of the haiku form are clear and rigid. It consists of three verses with a total of seventeen syllables. Verses one and three contain five syllables each. The second, or middle verse, contains seven. Haiku poets must operate within this fairly rigid framework, although they may change the syllable count for special effect. Also, haiku usually employs ordinary language. Haiku is not cluttered by wordiness [in its attempt] to reveal the fundamental unity of all things in nature. The poem below, by Nakamura Kusataro (1901- ), illustrates the deceptive simplicity of haiku, and the fundamental unity of things in nature.

In the midst of
All things verdant, my baby
Has begun to teethe.
[Trans. Donald Keene, Modern Japanese Literature, Grove, 1956, p. 382]

There are only two simple, concrete images in this poem: "things" and "baby." But notice that the baby is about to teethe in the midst of things verdant (verdant means green, suggesting spring). A teething baby in the spring, therefore, suggests the harmony and unity of the natural cycle of life.

2. Suggestion

Also like simplicity, suggestion is a deceptive concept. We can seldom be absolutely certain of what is suggested or implied below the surface. What is between the lines? What is below the surface of literal meaning in an orderly arrangement of words? What more is there to be understood? These questions illustrate the subtle power of suggestion.

A brief look at the Japanese language shows the important role suggestion plays in verbal expression. In comparison to Japanese, English is a language that communicates rather directly and explicitly. Japanese communicates moods, feelings, and impressions. In Japanese, it is possible to change word order and still maintain the meaning. In contrast, changing word order in English also may change the meaning. Indeed, changing the word order in English often produces an ungrammatical sentence. Japanese grammar does not always indicate number (singular or plural), nor does it always indicate sex (masculine or feminine). The language is very economical. It can omit many words and still communicate. Quite often, deliberate omissions of words create ambiguities (double or vague meanings). Therefore, Japanese people must develop sensitivity to meanings carried by context and implied through nuance. The very nature of the language forces Japanese speakers and readers to "look between the lines" -- to discover suggested meanings.

In English and American literature, the New Criticism of the early 20th century called for ambiguity, indirect statement, and paradox in poetry. A number of poets and critics found in Japanese haiku much that appealed to them in their search for vital new forms. Led by T.E. Hulme, Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, Hilda Doolittle, and others, the Imagists were profoundly influenced by haiku. They advocated common speech in poetry, the use of "free verse," free choice of subject matter, concentration on one or two images per poem, brevity, and clarity. The following stanzas from a poem by Amy Lowell, called "Hokku," follows the Japanese form. It contains the seventeen-syllable form and communicates a remarkable feeling of oneness with nature.

Staying in my room
I thought of the new spring leaves,
That day was happy.

The questions this poem raises illustrate the powerful suggestion beyond the words themselves: Why is the poet staying in her room? What leads her thoughts to "new spring leaves"? Why do such thoughts make her "happy"? Does her identifcation with spring suggest a possible new beginning for her?

Mystery and depth are words often used to describe the suggestive power of Japanese haiku. The reader of haiku must be careful to look with the mind and the heart behind the deceptively short and simple concrete message of the poem. The haiku poet uses his art to discover and express universal aspects of nature. The artist intends to help readers make leaps of perception to the essential oneness of life. It is this Zen perception of things that is often suggested beyond the literal words of a haiku poem.

Once again, examine the poem by Nakamura Kusataro, this time to illustrate the power of suggestion. In particular, observe suggestions of the cycle of life, affinity to nature, and emphasis of the significance of a passing moment in time and space.

In the midst of
All things verdant, my baby
Has begun to teethe.

Beyond the literal level of meaning lies a universal truth. Literally, a baby has begun to teethe in the spring. But, by merging the image of spring with the image of a teething baby, the poet suggests the universal cycle of life. The power of suggestion is a value in haiku, as it is in much Japanese life, language, and art.

3. Spontaneity

Spontaneity means suddenness or naturalness in thought and action. A spontaneous thought occurs without conscious development and deliberation. A spontaneous action is sudden, unplanned, and natural. Where behavior is concerned, spontaneity may lead to difficulty if it is left unchecked. If it is merely impulsive action, without regard to consequences, it can be harmful to oneself and to others. The key dimension of spontaneity is discipline.

In the best sense, spontaneity might also be synonymous with "disciplined reflex." Healthy spontaneity is made possible through long and sometimes agonizing discipline. Zen requires spontaneous action. In the Japanese tea ceremony, a skillful tea master does not depend entirely on the standard requirements of the ceremony itself. He depends upon spontaneous action. It is the achievement of spontaneity that distinguishes the skilled craftsman from the novice. The master poet learns to produce haiku without conscious awareness of what the form requires. Similarly, the skillful reader of haiku develops a natural reading rhythm and insight into the poems without conscious awareness of the achivement. In both cases, each has reached a high level of spontaneity.

The leaps of insight required by spontaneous action demand streamlined expression. Thus, haiku poetry is much shorter than most Western poetry. Take a final look at Nakamura Kusataro’s poem. This time, observe how spontaneity brings the poem to life. Shortness suggests sudden and penetrating insight; simplicity and naturalness of expression suggest such mastery of the haiku form that no obvious strain is necessary for the poet to handle it. He has achieved spontaneity; the meshing of "things verdant" with the baby who "has begun to teethe" is so subtle that the harmonious oneness of the two images might go almost unnoticed in a first reading. The only suggestion of action in the poem is carried by the teething baby. The growth of the baby illustrates the disciplined regularity of natural functions. Spontaneously, the baby grows and develops within the disciplined regularity of nature.

4. The Merging of Concepts

Perhaps by examining the famous haiku by Basho, we can see how simplicity, suggestion, and spontaneity are intertwined.

An ancient pond!
A frog leaps in;
The sound of the water!
[Trans. Minoru Toyoda, An Anthology of Haiku Ancient and Modern, Greenwood Press, 1970, p. 132]

The English translation of Basho’s poem consists of very simple words. There are three concrete images: pond, frog, and water. The pond is old, suggesting a deep historical context. The pond has held many frogs in the past; therefore, the one frog in the poem may take on a universal significance. Perhaps it stands for all frogs -- past, present, and future. Since the frog is the only active image in the poem (it jumps), perhaps it represents a life of action. As the frog leaps into the pond, the water splashes, suggesting the inevitability of a reaction to every initial action. There is no apparent motivation for the frog’s leaping; the act is spontaneous. A close reading of the poem reveals a merging of the three images. The act of leaping creates a union among the frog, the pond and the splashing water.