Week 9: Enlightenment and the Old Regime

Discussion: Enlightenment, Politics, and Gender
Read and discuss Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract [Excerpts] (1762) [Canvas]


What Was Enlightenment?
Image: Title page of the first volume of the Encyclopédie, edited by Diderot and D'Alembert

I. The Encyclopédie: Machine of Enlightenment

II. Big Thinkers, Major Phases
A. Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and the Early Enlightenment
B. Critique and Crisis: La Mettrie and Rousseau
C. The Mature Enlightenment: Kant's Critique of Pure Reason


Image above: Denis Diderot, co-editor of the Encyclopédie. Image right: Cover page of volume 1 of the Encyclopédie, published in 1751.

Image: Illustration for “Histoire Naturelle” (Large Cats)
Image: Illustration for “Histoire Naturelle” (Glaciers, Volcanos)
Image: Illustration for “Architecture”
Image: Illustration for “Musique”
Image: Illustration for “Moulin”
Image: Illustration for “Charpente”
Image: Illustration for “Horlogerie”
Image: Map from the Encyclopédie Atlas

Image: Frontispiece of the Encyclopédie
Image: Chart of Human Knowledge in the Encyclopédie

Encyclopedie

Identifications:

François-Marie Arouet de Voltaire (1694-1778), philosophe par excellence
Denis Diderot (1713-1784), co-editor of the Encyclopédie
Jean-le-Rond d'Alembert(1717-1783), co-editor of the Encyclopédie

John Locke (1637-1704)
David Hume (1711-1776)
Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), author of The Social Contract (1762)
Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1709-1751), author of L'Homme machine (1748)
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Sensationalism
Deism
Natural Religion, Natural Rights

The Encyclopédie (1751-1772)

Écrasez l'infâme! (“Eradicate the Infamous Thing!”)
Sapere Aude! (“Dare to Know!”)

Image: Godfrey Kneller, Portrait of John Locke (1697). Oil on canvas. 76x64 cm. Image source: CGFA.


A Republic of Letters
Image: Anicet-Charles-Gabriel Lemonnier (1743-1824), In the Salon of Madame Geoffrin in 1755 (1812). Oil on canvas, 126 x 195 cm. Château du Malmaison, Rueil.

I. Alexis de Tocqueville Looks Back at the “Old Regime”

II. European Society in the Eighteenth Century
A. Nobles and the “Bourgeoisie”
B. Economic Growth and Social Change

III. Institutions of Enlightenment
A. The “Republic of Letters”
B. Salons and Academies
C. Freemasonry: Living the Enlightenment

Animation: The Proliferation of Academies, 1701-1810

IV. The Formation of a Public Sphere


Identifications:

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859), author of The Old Regime and the French Revolution (1856) 

Ségur  Ordinance (1781)

Salons (Example: Madame Geoffrin in Paris, Princess Sophia Czartoryska in Warsaw, Rahel Varnhagen in Berlin)

Scientific and Literary Academies

Freemasonry

“Notables”: a new class created from a fusion between the wealthiest strata of non-noble bourgeois with the old nobility

“It is not always by going from bad to worse that a society falls into revolution...Feudalism at the height of its power had not inspired Frenchmen with so much hatred as it did on the eve of its collapse. The slightest acts of arbitrary power under Louis XVI seemed less easy to endure than all the despotism of Louis XIV.” Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution. Image right: Theodore Chasseriau, Charles-Alexis-Henri Clerel De Tocqueville (1850). Source: Allposters.com.


From Reform to Revolution

I. The Reform Agenda of “Enlightened Absolutism”
A. Example: Prussia under Frederick II (1740-1786)
B. Example: The Habsburg Lands under Joseph II (1780-1790)

Image: An Allegory of Frederick II, Protector of the Humble Serf

II. Crisis and Collapse of the Old Regime in France
A. The American War (1776-1781)
B. The Financial Crisis
C. The Revolutionary Moment (1789)

Image: An Allegory on American Independence
Chart: Top Ten Concerns on the Eve of Revolution


Elisabeth-Louise Vigée-Lebrun, Charles-Alexandre de Calonne (1784). Oil on canvas, 149 x 128 cm The Royal Collection. Image source: Royal Academy of Arts.


Pompeo Batoni (1708-1787), Emperor Joseph II with Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany (1769). Canvas, 173 cm x 122 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, GG Inv. No. 1628. This double portrait shows the eldest son of Maria Theresa, Joseph II (1741-1790, emperor from 1765), and his brother Leopold (1747-1792, grand duke of Tuscany from 1765, emperor as Leopold II from 1790). The portrait, executed on the occasion of the brothers reunion in Rome, reflects the Neoclassical portrait concept of the artist as well as the maxims of the Enlightenment, as shown by Montesquieu's The Spirit of Laws on the table. Although free of pomp and splendour, the simple composition nevertheless shows the rank and dignity of these two enlightened rulers.

Identifications:

Frederick II, King of Prussia (1740-1786)
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor (1780-1790)

Louis XV, King of France (1715-1774) 
Louis XVI, King of France (1774-1792)

Anne-Robert Jacques Turgot, Contrôleur Général of Finance, 1774-1776
Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, Contrôleur Général of Finance, 1783-1787

The Agenda of “Enlightened Absolutism”:

Toleration for Religious Minorities
Reform of Criminal Justice
Manufacture, Trade, and Agriculture
Consolidation of State Power

Assembly of Notables (1787-1788) 
Estates General (1789)

The “Great Fear” of 1789

Image: Anne-Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron d'Aulne (1727-1781), Contrôleur Général of Finance, 1774-1776.

Go to Week 10