Phases =

1. "Agricultural revolution" or transformation of pre-modern village life

A. English enclosures [MAP]
B. French Revolution and general European "de-feudalization"
C. USA farms
D. Stalinist "collectivization"
E. Chinese Communist "Great Leap Forward"

2. The mechanized and steam-powered phase, or the "first industrial revolution" (1750s-1880s)
Historian Charles Tilly offered an interpretation of two forces that combined to create the political economies of modern European nation-states

1834:USA | McCormick Reaper, pulled by horse with operator ("farmer") walking on side with clutch lever

1860:Farm locomotive, steam powered and requiring three operators

*1764:English entrepreneur James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny. His family enterprise used it quickly to produce unprecedented volumes of woolen and then cotton cloth. Cotton was a crop that did not grow significantly in England. It had to be imported from remote areas where English power allowed cheap raw materials, like cotton, to be brought home for manufacturing into finished products. Thereafter, the manufactured product was sold at high profit in England, but also exported to the wider world. Remote agricultural civilizations provided cheap raw materials and bought back expensive finished products. In the 1760s and 70s, English export of cotton cloth increased 10 times over. That was the future launched by Hargreaves, but he suffered a catastrophe. Neighboring hand weavers who suffered in competition with the new machinery broke into this plant and destroyed his jennies. Hargreaves sold the patent to his spinning jenny, thus derived no profit from its eventual central role in early English industrialization. He died penniless

*1769:English inventor and entrepreneur Richard Arkwright patented his water frame or spinning frame which drew cotton from the carding machine into a fine, hard-twisted thread. Arkwright began his working life as a barber's apprentice but made his first fortune when he employed a secret method of dying human hair for sale to wigmakers. Now his machinery allowed warp and woof spinning of cotton into cloth

*1779:English inventor Samuel Crompton, who had grown up working as a spinner and weaver in the early cloth factories, devised a Muslin Wheel which allowed cotton threat to be drawn in great lengths onto spools for use in huge mechanized weaving machines that were coming into use. He did not patent his invention. It was stolen by all the larger cloth manufacturers. In 1811 Parliament recognized his contribution and gave him a huge stipend. He was no businessman and died penniless

*1780s:James Watt's rotary steam engine was perfected . Human energy, animal energy, and water energy were now to be replaced in nearly every manufacturing process by steam energy. In 1820, England exported and sold 208 million yards of cotton goods. By 1840, it sold 729 million yards. In 1785, England imported and processed 11 million pounds of cotton, in 1850, England imported and processed 588 million pounds, an increase of over 50 times the earlier figure

*1794:US inventor Eli Whitney patented the cotton gin ["gin" = short for engine] which he had conceptualized while living as a guest on the slave estate of Nathaniel Greene's widow in Georgia. He began manufacturing the gin in New Haven CN, largely for sale in the cotton growing areas of the southern USA. The cotton gin made slavery profitable, but the patent was infringed by many other manufacturers. Suits at law were of no avail. His factory burned. His partner died. But Whitney did not give up. He landed a procurement contract with he US government to manufacture firearms. He perfected mass precision manufacturing in which well-tooled parts were interchangeable, from weapon to weapon. He was able to fill President Jefferson's order for 10,000 muskets in two years

*1830:English inventor George Stephenson [ID] inaugurated the first rail line linking two industrializing cities, Manchester and Liverpool (a seaport). The English economy was entering into the phase that later theorists called "the take-off into self-sustained industrial growth" [ID] in which the industrializing economy became dependent on its own industrial products. Industrial growth consumed industrial products in an ascending and expanding circular pattern. Railroads carried coal to make steel. Railroads required vast quantities of steel for track, rolling stock, stations and, of course, those fabulous steam engines, so that the coal and steel, etc., could be transported in volume. And these railroads burned coal. Add to this the rising demand on the construction trades to build roads, bridges, and docks for those ocean-going ships increasingly powered by steam themselves and later made of steel and burning petroleum fuel. From 1830 to 1850, English coal output trebled, from 15 or 49 million tons per year. Iron output rose in equal proportion, from 680 thousand to 2.25 million tons per year

Global railway mileage =
1840 =     4,500 miles
1850 =   23,500
1870 =   50,000
1890 = 100,000
1910 = 130,000 +

1850:1910; Chart of west European railroad growth over a 60-year period
1848-1871; Maps of railroad development in west Europe over a 23-year period
1850:1890; Maps of railroad development in southern England over a 40-year period
1850:1880; Maps of railroad development in north-central, German-speaking Europe over a 30-year period
1850:1913; Maps of railroad development in Europe over a 63-year period

3. The "petroleum" phase, or the "second industrial revolution" (1880s-1939)

*1856:English mechanical engineer Henry Bessemer, in a effort to improve the quality of artillery, perfected a method of oxidizing molten iron in great caldrons to produce high quality steel in massive quantities. This came to be known as the Bessemer Process [pix]

*1865:1914; In a half century, world production of steel increased 100-fold, from 500 thousand to 50 million tons per year

Saga of Andrew Carnegie [pix] [5-hop LOOP]

*1870:International grain trade reached full maturity [ID]

*1876:Era of petroleum-driven industrialization [pix] [4-hop LOOP]

4. The "managerial revolution" or "neo-mercantilism" (1939----)

*1895:USA "Managerial Revolution" underway. Follow SAC LOOP

Transnational corporations

Taxonomy of the industrializing experience
I. Mentalities
II. Institutions
III. Society
IV. Economy
V. Geography

I. Mentalities
    A. Secularization
    B. Science, engineering (EG=Isambard Kingdom Brunel), and artistic sensibilities (EG="precisionism")
    C. Democracy (of one sort or another)
    D. Popular culture | Consider these words which came into the English language in the industrial age [TXT]
    E. Economic theory, some in favor, some opposed =
These variously embraced industrialization = Adam Smith | Robert Owen | Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels | Friedrich List | Samuel Smiles
These recoiled from modern industrialization = Ferdinand Tönnies | William Jennings Bryan | Thorstein Veblen
*--Max Weber acknowledged a sad ascendancy = Protestant "ethic" and the "spirit" of capitalism
Lord Furness extolled corporations while John Davis and other "progressives" warned against them
Rudolf Hilferding's "co-partnership of classes"  
Walter Rathenau's vision of a thoroughly planned national economy
Adolf Berle defined the modern "corporation" 
USA| Theorists in the 1950s tried to define industrialization as a global phenomenon

II. Institutions
    A1. Public education
    A2. "The media" = 1860:Minerva Press | 1866:Atlantic Cable | Hand press | High-speed rotational press
    B. Government as agent of society, slowing shifting toward "chief employer"
    C. Domestic Welfare becomes a standard function of government (beyond old military, police & tax authority)
    D. Rise of business institutions large enough to rival nation-states = the transnational corporation
    E. Military-Industrial complexes

III. Social structure
    A. "Feudal" structures toppled
    B. Decline of rural culture, rise of urban
    C. Peasants & craftsmen became proletarians. The English experienced it first =
Labor LOOP to 1861 | Personal testimony
Labor LOOP to 1914au04 | [pix]
    D. New "commoner" elite [not defined by sword or miter, but by capital (i.e., money-making money)]
        1. Bourgeoisie
        2. "Professionals", "Savants"
        3. A new social "pyramid" [pix]
    E. Women = Follow the LOOP from 1844 to 1949
    F. Rise of "New Class"

IV. Economy

GO PHASES

V. Geography
   A. Globalization
*1825:USA Erie Canal completed [ID]
*1851:Crystal Palace Exhibition (world's fair) [ID] [pix~]
*1866:Atlantic Cable linked west Europe with North America [pix]
*1869:+; Suez Canal [ID]
*1880:1972; Global grain trade routes extended and thickened [maps]
*1901:Panama Canal project [ID]
*1981:Global petroleum trade now mocked the concept of national "energy independence" or the hysteria provoked by the thought of "oil dependency" [map]
*2001:+; Martin Walker article describes "three phases of globalization" [SUMMARY]

  B. Population growth, generally and particularly in cities
*1851:1911; English rural population migrated to cities in industrial districts [map]
*--Urban "sprawl" = 1852:1910; Frankfort [maps] | 1805:1911; Lyons [maps] | 1800:1960; London [maps]
*--TABLE describes Growth of the Urban Population and Levels of Urbanization in Europe (except Russia) [Source] =

*--European population density = 1820-1940 (120 years)
*--World population growth over the eons [pix]
*1920:Charles Sheeler and Paul Strand made a movie MANHATTA [W], celebrating the great new-world industrial metropolis New York City and inspired by Walt Whitman's poem "Leaves of Grass" [ID]

*1981oc18:Portland Oregonian effort to illustrate fact that one in eleven humans who have ever lived on this earth were alive just then

                                          8000-BC       7000-BC       6000-BC       5000-BC       4000-BC       3000-BC       2000-BC       1000-BC      Year "zero"    1000-AD   2000-AD

ILLUSTRATIONS

Wage-labor

1819:English Factory Act hearings saw representations of child labor in mines, a young girl naked to the waste in the hot damp mine shaft

*1900c:London Burne Street Workers' barracks, beds like coffins

*1900c:London poor children at food kitchen

*1911:A new social pyramid for the industrial age (as presented by The International Workers of the World)

*1912c:West Virginia Brown Mine | Lewis W. Hine's photo of a young driver

*1886:French workers in violent strike
 

*1882my01:NYC | Workers demonstrate on May Day

*1937:USA Republic Steel Co. put down strikers with "police" help

Mechanization 

Coal and steam power

*1850:1910; European railroad growth

*1850:Southern England | Railroad lines [compare with 40 years later]

*1890:Southern England | Railroad lines [compare with 40 years earlier]

*1850:Germany [north central European territories coming under Prussian control] Railroad network [compare with 30 years later]

*1880:Germany [north central European territories now united as "Deutschland"] Railroad network [compare with 30 years earlier]

*1848:west European railroad lines [compare with 29 years later]

*1877:west European railroad lines [compare with years 29 years earlier]

*1850c:European railroads [compare with 1913]

*1913c:European railroads [compare with 1850]

*1900c:Paris "Western Railway Station" overrun by incoming train

Twentieth-century steam turbine, with cut-away housing (left) to expose vanes (blades that spin under high pressure)

Petroleum power

John David Rockefeller in his old age
 

*1865:USA PN | Oil field "Pioneer Run"

*1891:Baku oil fields

*1905:Baku oil fields of the Nobel Co. patrolled by Cossack troops after damaging labor strike

Twentieth-century oil refinery

Steel

Andrew Carnegie
 

*1880s:Germany, Essen | Krupp industries Bessemer converters in action
 

Turner's vision of the railroad = "Rain, Steam and Speed: The Great Western Railway"

*1930s:The idealized 20-th c. railroad

Internal combustion engine

*1900je:Italian inventor Lancia Vencenzo drives his automobile

*1931:Cadillac V-16 [ID]

Who was Cadillac? [ID]

*1932:Chevrolet

Swiss/German artist Paul Kley [ID] cartooned the automobile as "Der Benzinhengst" [The Gasoline Stallion]

*1930c:London traffic, largely busses

*1934:German Autobahn newly completed

*1903:USA | Wright brothers make their first flight

Liberty engine, V-12
 

Construction

1831:1864; Isambard Kingdom Brunel [W#1] [W#2] [W#3 Clifton Bridge time-laps photo with "commercial-culture" pop-ups] [SAC]

Four views of the Clifton Bridge 

Clifton bridge under construction, designed and built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel

*1927:Charles Sheeler photographed the Ford Motor Company River Rouge Plant [W]

[W TXT = Sharon Corwin article (with many illustrations) on the relationship of artistic "Precisionism" (of which Sheeler was a prime example)
with scientific management [ID] and what she calls the effacement of labor]

1930:Charles Sheeler, "Classical Landscape" [ID] =

[W = 1930:Charles Sheeler, "American Landscape"]
[W = 1936:Charles Sheeler, "City Interior"]
[W = 1939:Charles Sheeler, "Steam Turbine"]

New York City, the Chrysler Building
 

*1927:Soviet architectural visionary, Rudnev, imagined the future city
 

Electrical power [pix] [pix]

Nuclear Power

"Service sector"

Interdependency

*1851:London the site of the first world's fair, the great Crystal Palace Exhibition [ID] [NEXT]

A display of great colonial wealth in the East India Room [NEXT]

The grand interior hall [NEXT]

Military parade in front of Crystal Palace [start LOOP again]

Globalization of industrializing "imperialist" power =

*1866:Atlantic cable laid
 

1880:Grain trade routes [compare with a century later, 1978] 

1978:Grain trade routes [compare with a century earlier, 1880]  

Nineteenth-century Boston bread Factory" 

1910:1976; USA dietary changes in epoch of industrialization 

*1981:World distribution of petroleum products

Military-Industrial Complexes 

*1890s:US Battleship Maine

*1890s:US Naval Cruiser New York

*1890s:US Naval Cruiser Olympia

Environmental challenge